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GACA
اللغه العربيه للطيبان المحلي
General Authority of Civil Aviation
EBOOK VOLUME 5. AIR OPERATOR – OPERATIONAL APPROVALS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME 5. AIR OPERATOR - OPERATIONAL APPROVALS
CHAPTER 1. AIR NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
Section 1. Navigation: General Concepts and Guidance 3
Section 2. Air Navigation Approval Requirements: General 17
Section 3. VFR Navigation 22
Section 4. Reserved 25
Section 5. Special Navigation Areas of Operation 26
Section 6. Communications: General Concepts and Guidance 42
Section 7. Surveillance: General Concepts and Guidance 51
CHAPTER 2. ALL WEATHER TERMINAL AREA OPERATIONS
Section 1. Background of All Weather Terminal Area (AWTA) Operations .....59
Section 2. General Concepts for All Weather Terminal Area (AWTA) Operations 62
Section 3. General Approval Requirements for All Weather Terminal Area (AWTA)…96 Operations
Section 4. Low Visibility Takeoff 105
Section 5. Non-Precision, APV and Category I 109
Section 6. Category II 125
Section 7. Category III 136
Section 8. Detailed CAT II and CAT III Approval Guidance 155
Section 9. Use of Enhanced Vision Systems 188
Section 10. RNP AR APCH 197
Section 11. Maintenance/Inspection Programs for All Weather Terminal Area (AWTA)198
Operations
Section 12. Miscellaneous All Weather Terminal Area (AWTA) Operational Approval \( ^{308} \)
CHAPTER 3. AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AND AERODROME DATA
Section 1. Airplane Performance Computation Rules 214
Section 2. Specific Airplane Performance Rules 230
Section 3. Approval of Performance Data Sections of CFMs 245
Section 4. Aerodrome Data Acquisition Systems 250
Section 5. Selected Performance Practices 253
Section 6. Operating Performance, Normal Category Rotorcraft 262
Section 7. Operating Performance Transport Category Rotorcraft 263
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CHAPTER 4. MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LISTS (MEL) AND CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LISTS (CDL)
Section 1. Approve a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) for Part 91 Operators …264
Section 2. Approve a Minimum Equipment List/Configuration Deviation List (MEL/ 286 CDL) for Part 121 and 135 Operators
Section 3. Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) Development and Approval…315 Process
Section 4. Configuration Deviation List (CDL) Development and Approval ……318
Section 5. Nonessential Equipment and Furnishings (NEF) Program 319
CHAPTER 5. AIRPLANE AUTHORIZATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
Section 1. Authorization of Extended Range Operations for Part 121 328
Section 2. Evaluate Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM) 344
CHAPTER 6. ROTORCRAFT AUTHORIZATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
Section 1. Rotorcraft En Route Descent Area (REDA) 350
Section 2. Night Vision Imaging Systems 358
Section 3. Rotorcraft Hoist Operations (RHO) 369
Section 4. Authorization of Helicopter Performance Class-2 with Exposure (PC2WE)370
CHAPTER 7. LOW VISIBILITY TAXI OPERATIONS
Section 1. Evaluate Low Visibility Taxi Operations 402
CHAPTER 8. SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMIT WITH CONTINUING AUTHORIZATION
TO CONDUCT FERRY FLIGHTS
Section 1. Evaluating a Special Flight Permit with Continuing Authorization to…… 404
Conduct a Ferry Flight Program
CHAPTER 9. RESERVED
Section 1. TBD 408
CHAPTER 10. ISSUE/RENEW A CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORIZATION FOR
OPERATIONS IN SPECIAL AREAS OF OPERATION
Section 1. Issue/Renew a Certificate of Authorization for Operations in Special Areas 409
CHAPTER 11. AUTHORIZE ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAGS (EFB)
Section 1. Authorize Use of Electronic Flight Bags (EFB) 423
Section 2. Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) Program Checklist. 427
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EBOOK VOLUME 5. AIR OPERATOR – OPERATIONAL APPROVALS
VOLUME 5. AIR OPERATOR – OPERATIONAL APPROVALS
CHAPTER 1. AIR NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
Section 1. Navigation: General Concepts and Guidance
5.1.1.1. GENERAL. This section provides an introduction to the chapter and an explanation of navigational concepts, direction, and guidance to be used by General Authority of Civil Aviation (GACA) aviation safety inspectors (Inspectors) when evaluating compliance with applicable navigation, communication and surveillance requirements prescribed for air operators. It also discusses methods and requirements necessary to approve or deny requests for certain operations that require GACA approval. These approvals may include the use of an aircraft and/or navigation systems new to that operator and/or proposed operations into new areas of operation using previously approved aircraft and navigational systems.
A. Evaluation of Aircraft Navigation Equipment. Due to the complex nature of air navigation, navigational requirements for flight operations, and the wide variation in air traffic control (ATC) separation standards used in these operations, Inspectors should evaluate each proposed operation and assess the operator's capability to operate an appropriately equipped aircraft including pilot training and procedures, in environments requiring differing navigational accuracies under a wide variety of meteorological conditions.
B. Evaluating Operations. This chapter provides guidance for evaluating operations using navigational systems that have established operational characteristics and limitations within airspace having particular and unique navigational requirements or tolerances. When an operator requests an approval to use a means of navigation not addressed by this guidance, the request must be forwarded to the Director, Flight Operations Division, and the Director, Airworthiness Division, when applicable.
C. The Objective of Air Navigation. In aviation, the following objectives of air navigation and navigational systems are necessary:
1) The first objective is to avoid all obstacles while en-route and to arrive safely and efficiently at the intended destination.
2) The second objective is to efficiently fly an intended route with enough precision to permit air traffic controllers to safely separate aircraft.
D. General Concepts. Early in aviation, only a few aircraft operated within any given area at the same time. The most demanding navigational requirements were to avoid obstacles and arrive at the intended destination with enough fuel remaining to safely complete a landing. As aviation evolved, the volume of air traffic grew and a corresponding need to prevent collisions increased. Today, the most significant and demanding en route navigational requirement in aviation is the need to safely separate aircraft. There are several factors that must be understood concerning the separation of aircraft by air traffic control (ATC).
1) When ATC does not have a means of surveillance, such as radar or Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) to verify air traffic positions, ATC must rely entirely on pilot position reports relayed from an aircraft to determine its actual geographic position and altitude. In this situation, the flight crew's precision in navigating the aircraft and their timely transmittal of accurate position reports are critical to ATC's ability to provide safe separation.
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2) When ATC does have a means of surveillance to verify the aircraft's position, precise navigation and position reports, when required, are a means of providing continuing safe separation. Flight safety in instrument flight rules (IFR) operations depends directly on the operator's ability to achieve and maintain certain levels of navigational performance. ATC radar or ADS is used to monitor navigational performance, detect navigational deviations, and expedite traffic flow.
3) The control of air traffic requires that a certain level of navigational performance be achieved by aircraft operating under visual flight rules (VFR) to ensure safe separation of aircraft and to expedite the flow of air traffic.
a) During cruising flight, the VFR flight altitude appropriate to the direction of flight must be maintained to ensure the required vertical separation between VFR and IFR aircraft and to assist in the prevention of collision between VFR aircraft.
b) Any aircraft operating in accordance with ATC instructions must navigate with the level of accuracy required to comply with ATC instructions.
c) If a clearance to enter controlled airspace has not been received, the flight crew must navigate the aircraft with sufficient precision to avoid that airspace.
d) A pilot must navigate VFR aircraft with sufficient precision to:
1. Avoid weather conditions that would prevent visual contact with terrain and other aircraft.
2. Locate a suitable aerodrome and land safely without requiring assistance from air traffic service (ATS) providers.
5.1.1.3. RELEVANT STANDARDS FOR INTERNATIONAL AIR NAVIGATION AS PROMULGATED BY THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO).
A. General.
1) The need to ensure protection of persons and property both in flight and on the ground is fundamental to the General Authority of Civil Aviation Regulations (GACARs). Many of the design and performance requirements in aircraft certification rules are established to provide this protection. This protection is also extensively addressed in the operating and equipment rules related to air navigation. It is important that the regulations provide this protection equally to persons and property in flight and on the ground. Approvals of route and areas of en-route operation must take into account the need to protect persons and property in flight and on the ground.
2) The foundation for the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was established on December 7, 1944, when the text of the convention was opened for signature in Chicago, Illinois. This document (ICAO Doc 7300) is referred to as the “ICAO Convention” or the “Chicago Convention.” This “Convention” contains 96 Articles known as the Articles of the Convention. By signing the Convention, a government (State) agrees to abide by “certain principles and arrangements in order that international civil aviation may be developed in a safe and orderly manner and that international air transport services may be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and economically.” The Articles of the Convention represent those certain principles and arrangements and serve as the foundation for international aviation laws, standards, recommended
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practices and guidance material. Articles 44 through 66 established ICAO as a body within the United Nations. Articles 1 through 43 established general principles concerning international air navigation. The following are some of the more significant articles that relate to air navigation:
a) Article 1 recognizes that each State has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory.
b) Article 3 states that the convention applies only to civil aircraft and that each State will require their state aircraft to operate with due regard for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft.
c) Article 11 requires that the international air navigation laws and regulations of a contracting State relating to “the operation and navigation of such aircraft while within its territory, shall be applied to the aircraft of all contracting States without distinction to nationality, and shall be complied with by such aircraft upon entering or departing from or while within the territory of that state.”
d) Article 12 is the most significant requirement related to flight operations (Rules of the Air). This Article requires that “each contracting State undertakes to adopt measures to ensure that every aircraft over or maneuvering within its territory and that every aircraft carrying its nationality mark, wherever such aircraft may be, shall comply with the rules and regulations relating to the flight and maneuver of aircraft, there in force.” This Article also requires that “over the high seas, the rules in force shall be those established under this convention. Each contracting State undertakes to ensure the prosecution of all persons violating the regulations applicable.”
e) Article 37 requires each contracting State to achieve the highest practicable degree of uniformity with ICAO standards and recommended practices, in matters related to the safety, regularity, and efficiency of air navigation.
3) The Articles of the ICAO convention contain basic principles that are the foundation for ICAO annexes. ICAO annexes contain the Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) that have been adopted through international agreement to ensure the safety, regularity, and efficiency of air navigation. An ICAO standard is worded in mandatory language (shall, must, will) and is directive in nature. A recommended practice is worded in permissive language (should, may, can) and is not directive. Recommended practices represent practices that, although internationally recognized as safe operating practices, are not sufficiently comprehensive or lack the mature development appropriate for an international standard. The following are the ICAO annexes that are most significant to GACA Inspectors (Operations):
a) Annex 1, Personnel Licensing.
b) Annex 2, Rules of the Air.
c) Annex 6, Operation of Aircraft.
d) Annex 11, Air Traffic Services.
4) ICAO Annex 2 specifies international rules of the air agreed upon by ICAO member States. These rules are equivalent to the GACARs for operating within the territory of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). However, for
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operations over the high seas, Annex 2 is unique since it relates to flight and maneuver of aircraft within the meaning of Article 12 of the convention. Over the high seas, Annex 2 applies without exception (compliance is mandatory for all civil aircraft). Annex 2 is incorporated by reference into GACAR § 91.475 (a)(1), and requires each person operating a civil aircraft of KSA registry outside the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to comply with Annex 2 when operating over the high seas. The sections of Annex 2 most relevant to the discussion of air navigation are Chapter 3, General Rules, and Chapter 5, Instrument Flight Rules.
a) Chapter 3, paragraph 3.3 specifies requirements for ATC flight plans and paragraph 3.6 specifies requirements for ATC services.
b) Chapter 3, paragraph 3.6.2 requires an aircraft to adhere to its “current flight plan” (currently effective ATC clearance), to operate along the defined centerline of any ATS route used, and on any other route to operate directly between the points defining that route.
c) Chapter 3, paragraph 3.6.5 requires that the flight crew of any aircraft operated as a controlled flight to maintain a continuous listening watch on and establish two-way communication as necessary with (as required for air traffic control) the appropriate radio frequency of the appropriate ATC unit.
d) Chapter 5, paragraph 5.1.1 requires aircraft to be equipped with suitable instruments and navigational equipment appropriate to the route the pilot will fly.
e) Chapter 5, paragraph 5.2.1 requires all IFR flights to comply with the provisions of paragraph 3.6 when operating in controlled airspace.
f) These requirements, as specified in chapters 3 and 5 of Annex 2, mean that the aircraft must be navigated to the degree of accuracy required for ATC. Flight crews must maintain a continuous listening watch and communicate with ATC as necessary for the purpose of ATC.
g) ICAO Doc 7030, Regional Supplementary Procedures, forms the procedural part of the Air Navigation Plan developed by ICAO Regional Air Navigation (RAN) Meetings to meet those needs of specific areas that are not covered in the world-wide provisions. Flight crews must be aware of the regional procedures and NOTAMs for the areas in which they plan on operating, that complement the statement of requirements for facilities and services contained in the Air Navigation Plan publications. Procedures of world-wide applicability are either included in Annexes to the Convention as Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) or they form part of one of the documents titled, “Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS).”
5) ICAO Annex 6 has two parts applicable to fixed-wing aircraft. Part I specifies requirements for aircraft engaged in scheduled international air services and nonscheduled international air transport operations for compensation or hire. Part I applies to airplanes operated under the General Authority of Civil Aviation Regulation (GACAR) Part 121 and 135. Part II specifies requirements for international general aviation operations and this applies to airplanes operated under the General Authority of Civil Aviation Regulation (GACAR) Part 125. The purpose of Annex 6, Part I, is to facilitate safety in international airspace by providing standards for safe navigational operating practices. Part I also contributes to the efficiency and regularity of international air navigation by encouraging States to facilitate passage of other States' aircraft over their territories by operating in conformity with such standards. The application of Annex 2 to international operations differs slightly from Annex 6. A state may take exception (have different criteria) to Annex 2 standards for operations conducted in its sovereign
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airspace; however, no State can take exception to Annex 2 standards for operations conducted over the high seas. Annex 2, which specifies the international rules of the air, applies to all operations over the high seas without exception. Under Annex 6 standards, a State may take exception for operations in its sovereign airspace and for operation of its aircraft over the high seas. For air navigation, the most relevant section of Annex 6 is Chapter 7, Aeroplane Communication and Navigation Equipment. This Chapter contains ICAO SARPs related to navigation and communication. Pertinent elements of these SARPs are described as follows:
a) Each aircraft must have radio communication equipment capable of receiving meteorological information during the flight and conducting two-way communication at any time during the flight with aeronautical stations on frequencies prescribed by the appropriate authority. This requirement cannot be routinely satisfied by relaying reports through other aircraft.
b) Each aircraft must have navigational equipment that enables it to proceed in accordance with its operational flight plan and the requirements of ATS services. Operations in MNPS airspace or routes or airspaces where a performance based navigation specification (PBN) has been established require navigational equipment that continuously provides information to the flight crew regarding adherence to or departure from track with respect to the required degree of accuracy at any point along that track. Any operation in MNPS or RNAV/RNP routes or airspace must be authorized by the State responsible for that operator.
c) Each aircraft must have enough navigation equipment installed and operational to ensure that, if one item of equipment fails at any time during the flight, the remaining equipment will be sufficient to enable navigation to the degree of accuracy (and to ensure continuity of service) required for ATC. Additionally, failure of any single unit required for communication or navigation purposes, or both, must not result in the loss of another required unit.
6) ICAO Annex 11 pertains to the establishment of airspace, ATC units, and services necessary to promote a safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic. A clear distinction is made between ATC service, flight information service, and alerting service. Its purpose, together with Annex 2, is to ensure that flying on international air routes is carried out under uniform conditions designed to improve the safety and efficiency of air operation. The SARPs in Annex 11 apply in those parts of the airspace under the jurisdiction of a Contracting State where air traffic services are provided and a Contracting State accepts the responsibility of providing air traffic services over the high seas or in airspace of undetermined sovereignty. A Contracting State accepting such responsibility may apply the SARPs in a manner consistent with that adopted for airspace under its jurisdiction.
B. Relationship Between the GACARs, ICAO Annexes, and Foreign National Regulations. The General Authority of Civil Aviation Regulations (GACARs) represents the regulatory implementation of the responsibilities assigned by the Civil Aviation Law and the implementation of the principles derived from the ICAO convention. The relationship between the GACARs, ICAO Annexes, and foreign national regulations are as follows:
1) GACAR Part 91 regulates the operation of all civil and public aircraft within the KSA and specifies minimum capabilities necessary to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for air traffic control. It also regulates the operation of civil aircraft of KSA registry outside the KSA. The following are examples of GACAR Part 91 regulations applicable outside the KSA:
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a) GACAR § 91.475 (a)(1) requires each person operating a Saudi Arabian-registered aircraft to comply with ICAO Annex 2 when over the high seas and to comply with the regulations of a foreign country when operating within that country's airspace. This includes any local aerodrome rules that may be in force.
b) GACAR § 91.475 (a)(3) requires compliance with GACAR Part 91 when not in conflict with the regulations of a foreign nation or Annex 2.
2) In addition to GACAR Part 91 requirements in paragraph 1) above, for operators conducting operations under Part 121, GACAR § 121.9, specifies that these operators, when operating within a foreign country, must comply with the following:
a) Each certificate holder must, while operating an aircraft outside of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), comply with GACAR § 91.475, except where any rule of this part is more restrictive and may be followed without violating the rules of that country.
b) Annex 2 when over the high seas, in accordance with GACAR § 91.475.
3) The regulations listed below are in addition to GACAR Part 91 requirements. For operators conducting operations under GACAR Part 125, GACAR § 125.3 specifies that operators, comply with the following, when operating within a foreign country:
a) Each certificate holder must, while operating an aircraft outside of the KSA, comply with GACAR § 91.475, except where any rule of this part is more restrictive and may be followed without violating the rules of that country.
b) Annex 2 when operating over the high seas, in accordance with GACAR § 91.475.
4) The following regulations are in addition to GACAR Part 91 requirements. For operators conducting operations under GACAR Part 135, GACAR § 135.3 specifies that while operating outside the KSA, these operators must comply with the following:
a) Each certificate holder, while operating an aircraft in a country other than the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, must comply with GACAR § 91.475, except where any rule of this part is more restrictive and may be followed without violating the rules of that country.
b) Annex 2, when operating over the high seas, in accordance with GACAR § 91.475.
5) GACAR Part 91 regulates the operation of all civil aircraft within the KSA and specifies minimum capabilities necessary to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for air traffic control.
C. Relationship of the GACARs to Air Navigation.
1) The GACARs related to air navigation have been promulgated to accommodate the need to efficiently handle a continuous growth in air traffic, and advances in air navigation technology, ATS techniques, and ATS equipment. Certain regulations, such as those requiring filing an ATS flight plan and complying with ATC clearances, are clearly related to this objective. The ATS system presumes compliance with all of the regulations related to air
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navigation. Any noncompliance with these regulations can seriously degrade the ability to separate aircraft.
2) Examples of operational GACARs related to air navigation and the objective of safely separating aircraft include the following:
a) GACAR § 91.93 (b) (1)(2), Course to be flown.
b) GACAR § 91.101, Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions.
c) GACAR § 91.127, Operation in Class D Airspace.
d) GACAR § 91.129, Operation in Class C Airspace.
e) GACAR § 91.131, Operation in Class B Airspace.
f) GACAR § 91.135, Operations in Class A Airspace.
g) GACAR § 91.141, Temporary Flight Restrictions in the Vicinity of Disaster/Hazard Areas.
h) GACAR § 91.167, Special VFR Weather Minimums.
i) GACAR § 91.169, VFR Cruising Altitude.
j) GACAR § 91.185, IFR Flight Plan: Information Required.
k) GACAR § 91.183, ATC Clearance and Flight Plan Required.
l) GACAR § 91.201, IFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level.
m) GACAR § 91.407, Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications Operations.
n) GACAR § 91.409, Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Operations.
o) GACAR § 91.475, Operations of Saudi Arabian-Registered Civil Aircraft Outside of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
p) GACAR Part 91, Appendix C, Section IX, Communication Equipment.
D. Regulations Specifying Air Navigation Equipment Requirements. The basic air navigation equipment requirements are prescribed in GACAR § 91.303 and the related sections of Appendix C (Sections VII to Section X). These requirements relate directly to the air navigation objective of safely separating aircraft. Some of these equipment rules specifically relate to the operational requirement of navigating to the degree of accuracy required for ATS. The air navigation equipment rules prescribed in GACAR Part 91 are supplemented by other requirements prescribed in GACAR Part 91, 121, 125 and 135 to address certain specialized operations. Operations specifications (OpSpecs) issued to those operators contain specific authorizations, limitations, and conditions under which compliance is required by operators conducting flights under those GACAR parts.
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E. Essential Elements of Required Navigation Equipment. The essential elements of required navigation equipment that apply to all operations are prescribed in Section X of Appendix C to GACAR Part 91 are excerpted and reprinted here:
X. Navigation Equipment.
(a) All flights —
(1) Navigation equipment that will enable the aircraft to proceed in accordance with the flight plan and with the requirements of Air Traffic Service (Air Traffic Service) except when navigation for flights under the VFR, if not so precluded by the appropriate authority, is accomplished by visual reference to landmarks.
(2) An operator must not employ electronic navigation data products that have been processed for application in the air and on the ground unless the operator has procedures for ensuring the process applied and the products delivered have met acceptable standards of integrity and the products are compatible with the intended function of the equipment that will use them. An operator must implement procedures to ensure the timely distribution and insertion of current and unaltered electronic navigation data to all aircraft requiring it.
(3) The navigation equipment must be installed so that the failure of any single unit required for navigation purposes will not result in the failure of another unit required for communications or navigation purposes.
(b) All IFR flights and all flights of transport and commuter category aircraft. Sufficient radio navigation equipment to permit the pilot, in the event of the failure at any stage of the flight of any item of that equipment, including any associated flight instrument display—
(1) To proceed to the destination aerodrome or proceed to another aerodrome suitable for landing; and
(2) Where the aircraft is operated in IMC, to complete an instrument approach and, if necessary, conduct a missed approach procedure.
F. Other Operating Rule Requirements.
1) Other sections of GACAR Part 91 specify navigation and communications equipment necessary for operations in Saudi Arabian airspace. The following are examples of other GACAR Part 91 equipment requirements, with clarification when appropriate.
a) GACAR §91.187, VOR Equipment Check for IFR Operations.
b) GACAR § 91.303, Instruments and Equipment Requirements: Powered Saudi Arabian-Registered Aircraft with Standard Airworthiness Certificates.
c) GACAR § 91.173, Use of Aircraft Lights.
d) GACAR § 91.229, Use of ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting Equipment.
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e) GACAR § 91.231, Data Correspondence Between Automatically Reported Pressure Altitude Data and the Pilot's Altitude Reference.
f) GACAR § 91.235, § 91.235, Use of Altitude Alerting System or Device: Turbojet-Powered Civil Airplanes.
g) GACAR § 91.237, Use of Airborne Collision Avoidance System Equipment.
2) GACAR Part 121 specifies the navigational equipment necessary for all operations conducted under that part, including operations outside the KSA. These requirements are in addition to the navigational equipment requirements of GACAR Part 91, but do not require duplication of any equipment specified in Part 91. All GACAR Part 121 en-route requirements reflect the concept of “demonstrated ability.” The following are examples of GACAR Part 121 navigation equipment requirements.
a) The operator must show that it is able to conduct satisfactory operations over the routes and areas in which it operates. Approvals in areas and on specific routes are granted in OpSpecs and listed by “area of en-route operation” and specific route, when appropriate.
b) GACAR §121.97, En-Route Navigational Facilities.
1. GACAR § 121.97 implements the concept of “navigation performance” when conducting IFR navigation using nonvisual ground aids. Nonvisual ground aids are electronic Navigational Aids (NAVAID), but not necessarily limited to VOR, DME, or NDB. When required, each GACAR Part 121 operator must show that nonvisual ground aids are available and are located to allow navigation to the degree of accuracy required for ATS and the type of operation involved.
2. Area navigational systems (including space-based systems such as global navigation satellite system (GNSS)) that are certified for IFR flight in areas where domestic ATS procedures are applied, meet the intent of GACAR § 121.97.
3. GACAR § 121.97 does not apply to VFR pilotage operations, or long-range navigation operations using an inertial navigation system (INS).
c) GACAR § 121.513, Aircraft Instruments and Equipment.
d) GACAR § 121.521 Communication and Navigation Equipment.
e) GACAR § 121.525 Communication and Navigation Equipment for Extended Over-Water Operations and for Certain Other Operations.
NOTE: The intent of GACAR §§ 121.521 and 121.525 is met when any navigation operation is predicated on the following equipment:
a. For conventional point-to-point navigation in continental areas along (and within the service volumes) of ATS routes defined by VOR/DME and ADF navigational aid (NAVAIDS) when navigation operation is predicated on the following equipment:
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o VOR: Provided dual independent VOR equipment is installed and operable in the aircraft
o NDB: Provided dual independent ADF equipment is installed and operable in the aircraft. However, if one ADF system and a dual independent VOR system are installed and operable, the intent of Part 91, Appendix C and GACAR § 121.521 is met provided VOR NAVAIDs are located at ground positions that would permit the flight to safely proceed (from any point along the route) to a suitable airdrome and complete an instrument approach without using ADF equipment
o RNAV Systems: Provided either dual independent RNAV systems certified under the appropriate guidance are installed and operable or if the capability exists to revert to VOR or NDB, a single RNAV system is installed and operable
b. For oceanic and remote operations when navigation operation is predicated on the following equipment:
o Long range navigation systems (LRNS) (such as INS, IRS, LORAN-C, GNSS, etc.) provided dual independent LRNS equipment certified under the appropriate guidance is installed and operable in the aircraft
NOTE: For operations in airspace areas designated with a performance-based navigation specification (e.g., PBN and MNPS), the aircraft must be equipped and certificated capable of navigating at the designated performance level.
NOTE: The intent of the GACARs with respect to navigation requirements is that when conducting VFR over the top operations, IFR operations, operations in extremely remote areas and overwater operations to include polar operations; the aircraft should be equipped with two independent navigation systems of the type required for that operation. (See GACAR Part 91, Appendix C, Section X, (a) and (b)).
5.1.1.5. NAVIGATION CONCEPTS.
A. Concept of Navigation Performance. The concept of navigation performance involves the precision that must be maintained for both the assigned route and altitude by an aircraft operating within a particular area. Navigation performance is affected by the deviation (for any cause) from the route of flight specified in the ATC clearance. This includes errors due to degraded accuracy and reliability caused by the design and maintenance of airborne and ground-based navigational equipment and the flight crew's competency.
1) The concept of navigational performance is fundamental to the regulations. GACAR § 91.101 requirements related to compliance with ATC clearances and instructions also reflect this fundamental concept. The concept of navigational performance is also inherent in ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs). For example, Annex 2 states that the aircraft “shall adhere to its current flight plan” (comply with the currently effective ATC clearance) and “when on an established air traffic service (ATS) route, operate along the defined centerline of that route.”
2) Performance based navigation (PBN) operations permit flight in any airspace with prescribed accuracy tolerances without the need to fly directly over ground-based navigation facilities. The application of PBN techniques in various parts of the world has already been shown to provide a number of advantages over more conventional forms of navigation.
3) PBN performance standards are being used and applied by aircraft and aircraft equipment manufacturers, airspace
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planners, aircraft certification and operations, pilots and controllers, and international aviation authorities. PBN, along with other aspects of communications, navigation, and surveillance, can be applied to obstacle clearance or aircraft separation requirements to ensure a consistent application level. PBN is a concept that applies to navigation performance within defined airspace, and therefore affects both the airspace and the aircraft. PBN is intended to characterize a particularly defined airspace through a statement of the navigation performance accuracy (RNAV/RNP type) to be achieved within the airspace. The RNAV/RNP type is based on a navigation performance accuracy value that is expected to be achieved by the population of aircraft operating within the airspace 95 percent of the time. Required levels of navigation performance (standards) vary from area to area, depending on traffic density and complexity of the routes flown. The implementation of PBN is part of ICAO’s Global Air Navigation Plan for Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance (CNS) and supports ICAO’s air traffic management (ATM) concepts. The end state of the transition is the implementation of free flight, allowing user-defined trajectory. The development of the PBN concept recognizes that current aircraft navigation systems are capable of achieving a predictable level of navigation performance accuracy and that a more efficient use of available airspace can be realized on the basis of this navigation capability. The carriage of specialized navigation equipment is a requirement in some regions and may become a requirement in others.
B. Concept of Operational Service Volume. Operational service volume is that volume of airspace surrounding an ICAO standard airways navigation facility that is available for operational use. Within that volume of airspace, a signal of usable strength exists that is not operationally limited by co-channel interference. Within this volume of airspace (the operational service volume), an ICAO standard ground-based NAVAID signal in space conforms to flight inspection signal strength and course quality standards including frequency protection. ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs are VOR, VOR/DME, and NDB. GNSS has been accepted by ICAO as a standard NAVAID, however, a distinction is made between “standard ground based NAVAIDs” and “standard NAVAIDs.” “Standard ground-based NAVAIDs” have an operational service volume and “standard NAVAIDs” do not. The airspace of ICAO contracting member States are based on the operational service volume of these ground-based facilities, but GNSS, by virtue of its universal signal coverage, is not restricted to an operational service volume. Navigational performance within the operational service volume and ATC separation minima can be predicated by the use of both standard ground-based NAVAIDs and standard NAVAIDs. The concept of operational service volume is critical for understanding and applying the principles of air navigation, as discussed in this handbook.
NOTE: ICAO Doc. 9613, titled the Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) Manual provides complete details concerning PBN concepts and implementation.
C. Categories of Navigational Operations. A thorough comprehension of the categories of navigational operations is essential to understand air navigation concepts and requirements discussed in this handbook and other documents. Understanding the categories of navigational operations is also essential for evaluating an operator's ability to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for the control of air traffic. In the broad concept of air navigation, four principal categories of navigational operations are identified:
1) Conventional point-to-point navigation in continental areas along (and within the operational service volumes) of ATS routes defined by ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs (VOR, VOR/DME, NDB).
a) Conventional point-to-point navigation includes VFR or IFR navigation operations on the following:
- Airways
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• IFR direct routes in the KSA
• IFR off airway routes in the KSA
- Airways, Advisory Routes (ADRs), direct routes, and off airway routes published or approved by a foreign government, provided that these routings are continuously within the operational service volume (or foreign equivalent) of ICAO standard ground based NAVIDs
2) Oceanic and remote areas navigation using long range navigation systems (LRNS) outside of a route structure defined by ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs (VOR, VOR/DME, NDB).
NOTE: This category also includes navigation in continental areas along ATS routes defined by ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs (VOR, VOR/DME, and NDB) but OUTSIDE the operational service volumes of the NAVAIDs.
3) Performance-based area navigation (PBN)
NOTE: For the purposes of this Section, PBN includes operations in MNPS and RVSM airspace.
4) All other navigation (including pilotage, dead reckoning, celestial navigation, etc.)
NOTE: This fourth category of navigation operations has limited relevance in today's world of aviation and it will not be addressed in detail in this Chapter.
D. ATC Separation Minima.
1) Navigation requirements are directly related to separation minima used by ATC. IFR separation minima applied in most countries are based on the use of ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs. However, these separation minima can only be applied by ATC within areas where the ground-based NAVAID signal in space meets flight inspection signal strength and course quality standards. An ICAO standard ground-based NAVAID signal in space conforms to flight inspection signal strength and course quality standards, including frequency protection, within its designated operational service volume. Therefore, air navigation and the safe separation of aircraft within that service volume can be predicated on the use of these facilities.
2) Within areas where the safe separation of aircraft is based on the use of ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs, any IFR operation must be navigated with at least the same accuracy as the accuracy specified by the appropriate national separation minima.
E. Concept of the Degree of Accuracy Required for Control of Air Traffic. The fundamental concept for all IFR navigation standards, practices, and procedures is that all IFR aircraft must be navigated to the degree of accuracy required for control of air traffic.
1) When a flight adheres to the clearance assigned by ATC at all times, that aircraft is considered to be navigated to the degree of accuracy required for the control of air traffic. If an aircraft makes an unauthorized deviation from its assigned clearance that aircraft has not been navigated to the degree of accuracy required for control of air traffic.
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2) ATC separation minima establish the minimum lateral, vertical, and longitudinal distances that are used to safely separate aircraft operating within a specified area. Separation minima also represent the minimum level of overall navigation performance and a buffer that can be accommodated at any time without jeopardizing safety of flight. These separation minima have been established for IFR operations in controlled airspace. These standards are usually established through international agreement and implemented through national regulations. These minima are established for particular categories of navigational operation and specified areas. Examples of particular categories of navigational operations and specified areas include navigation on airways in the national airspace of ICAO member States and long-range navigation in oceanic or remote land areas.
3) For operations where ATC services are provided by the GACA ANS Sector, separation minima are established by GACAR Part 171, which is based on ICAO Standards. For operations where air traffic services are provided by contracting ICAO member States, separation minima are established by the national regulations of the member States (if established) and in ICAO documents. Operations in Class G airspace are not provided ATC services (aircraft are not separated by ATC). Separation minima are not normally established for Class G airspace. The prevention of collision is dependent upon the “see and avoid” concept.
5.1.1.7. THE CONCEPT OF AN ATC CLEARANCE. Issuance of an ATC clearance by a controller and the acceptance of this clearance by a pilot is a negotiation process that establishes conditions for the prevention of collision hazards (in flight and terrain).
A. Controller Issued IFR Clearance. When a controller issues an IFR clearance, the controller agrees to reserve a three-dimensional block of airspace for that aircraft along the route defined in that clearance. The controller also agrees to issue clearances to all other controlled air traffic, ensuring safe separation.
B. Pilot Accepted ATC IFR Clearance. When a pilot accepts an ATC IFR clearance, the pilot agrees to continuously remain within that three-dimensional block of airspace assigned by ATC, and adhere to the rules of flight for that operation. The pilot is obligated to comply with the clearance unless amended or an emergency is declared.
C. Expected Degree of Pilot Accuracy. The pilot is expected to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for air traffic control. A failure to navigate to the degree of accuracy required may create a flight safety hazard.
D. Error Management, Plotting and Systematic Cross-Checking of Navigation Information. Long range navigation requires the standardized application of disciplined, systematic cross-checking of navigation information. Operator's long-range navigation programs should include those procedures.
NOTE: FAA AC 91-70, (as amended), provides an amplification of recommended crew procedures.
1) Plotting Procedures. Plotting procedures have had a significant impact on the reduction of gross navigational errors. There is a requirement to plot the route of flight on a plotting chart and to plot the computer position, approximately 10 minutes after waypoint passage. Plotting may or may not be required, depending upon the distance between the standard ICAO ground-based NAVAIDs. Plotting procedures are required in the following situations:
a) Plotting procedures are necessary for all operations where the route segment between the operational service volume of ICAO standard ground-based navigational aids exceeds 450 NM.
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b) Plotting procedures also required for routes of shorter duration that transit airspace where special conditions exist, such as reduced lateral and vertical separation standards, high density traffic, or flight in proximity to potentially hostile border areas.
E. Non-Radar or Non-ADS Environment. In a non-radar or non-ADS environment, ATC has no direct knowledge of the actual position of an aircraft or its relationship to other aircraft in adjacent airspace. Therefore, ATC's ability to detect a navigational deviation and resolve collision hazards is seriously degraded when a deviation from an agreed-to clearance occurs.
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CHAPTER 1. AIR NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
Section 2. Air Navigation Approval Requirements: General
5.1.2.1. GENERAL. This section contains general direction and guidance to be used by certification teams and aviation safety inspectors (Inspectors) when approving operator requests for areas of operation and other special air navigation operations. Inspectors approve these operations by issuing appropriate Part B operations specifications (OpSpecs). The approval process normally requires validation testing.
NOTE: Detailed guidance for the approval of special navigation areas of operations are contained in Section 5 of this chapter.
5.1.2.3. SUBJECT FAMILIARIZATION AND APPROVAL REQUIREMENTS. Once an operator has requested approval for air navigation operations, it is essential that Inspectors fully understand the concepts, General Authority of Civil Aviation (GACA) policies, standard practices, direction and guidance related to the area of proposed operations.
5.1.2.5. AREAS OF OPERATION AND NAVIGATION APPROVAL REQUIREMENTS. The first determination that must be made when assessing areas of operation is the type of navigation that will be required to navigate within the airspace where operations are contemplated. The decisive factor in this determination is the operational service volume of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standard ground-based navigational aids (NAVAIDs) within the proposed area of operation and any other requirements prescribed by the air traffic service (ATS) providers providing air traffic control (ATC) services in the airspace.
A. If the minimum en-route flight altitudes specified and the locations of the ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs ensure that the flight will always be within the operational service volume, the entire en-route operation is considered conventional and no specific approval is required other than the issuance of OpSpec B31.
B. In situations where the entire area of operation (at the minimum flight altitude specified) is outside (beyond) the operational coverage volume of ICAO standard ground-based NAVAIDs, the operation is unconventional and will require some form of long range navigation system and the operator must be approved to a performance-based navigation (PBN) specification commensurate with the airspace in which they navigate even if the airspace has not been official designated with a performance-based navigation specification. OpSpec B34 is used for this purpose.
C. For airspace with designated navigation performance specifications (e.g., PBN, MNPS, RVSM) the aircraft must be equipped and certificated to comply with the prescribed navigation performance and the operator must be authorized to conduct these operations. OpSpec B34 is used for this purpose. The following paragraphs provided further detail on these special operations.
NOTE: Visual flight rules (VFR) navigation under General Authority of Civil Aviation Regulation (GACAR) Part 91, 125 and 135 do not require specific approval from the President. Detailed guidance for the approval of VFR navigation for GACAR Part 121 air operators are contained in Section 3 of this chapter.
D. Flight Altitude. It is important to understand that the minimum flight altitude is a key factor in the determination of the category of navigation. The operational service volume of a particular standard ground-based NAVAID is heavily
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influenced by flight altitude. For example, at high altitude (above flight level (FL) 180), most very high frequency omnidirectional range stations (VOR) published for use at these altitudes have an operational service volume that extends to a radius of at least 130 nautical miles (NM) from the facility. However, at low altitudes (below 10,000 feet mean sea level (MSL)), the operational service volume of many VORs seldom exceeds 40 NM.
E. Range of Standard Ground-Based NAVAIDs. Generally, determination of the exact range (operational service volume) of the ground-based NAVAIDs intended to be used is not necessary. For example, a flight departing from the continental United States (US) with a destination in Europe or the Middle East would obviously perform conventional navigation using ground-based NAVAIDs and oceanic/remote navigation using long-range navigation system (LRNS) and would require equipment appropriate for both. The flight might also navigate in PBN designated airspace such as RNAV 5 airspace. In other situations, it can be readily determined that flight operations will only be conducted entirely within the operational service volume of standard ground-based NAVAIDs. However, sometimes a determination of the exact range of a NAVAID is required in order to evaluate compliance with the requirement for a reliable fix once each hour.
F. Foreign/Remote Operations. In foreign countries and in oceanic/remote areas, this determination is more complex. In general, VOR, VOR/distance measuring equipment (DME) routes and fixes published in those areas are within the operational service volume of the ground-based NAVAIDs specified. However, most ATS routes based on non-directional radio beacons (NDBs) in oceanic/remote areas require LRNS over a considerable portion of the route. For example, the standard service volume (or coverage) of high powered NDBs seldom exceeds 75 NM. Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP) issued by individual States are the best and most up to date sources of information on the operational service volume of these NAVAIDs.
5.1.2.7. SPECIAL OPERATIONS. Certain specific areas of operations require authorizations from the President in order for the operator to be permitted to engage in flight operations in these areas.
A. Examples of special areas of operation include the following:
- Areas of Magnetic Unreliability (AMU)
- Polar operations
- North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance Specification (NAT/MNPS) airspace
• Canadian MNPS airspace
• Central East Pacific (CEPAC) airspace
• North Pacific (NOPAC) airspace
• Pacific Organized Track System (PACOTS)
- Restricted international areas
- Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
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- Areas designated with a performance-based navigation specification (PBN)
5.1.2.9. NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT.
A. Written Aircraft Eligibility Documentation. In all cases, it is necessary for the operator to provide written aircraft eligibility documentation that explicitly states that the aircraft is properly certificated, equipped, and maintained to perform the required functions for the specific type of navigation and other requirements related to any special operation (referred to in paragraph 5.1.2.7, above).
1) The written evidence may take the form of a type certificate (TC), supplemental type certificate (STC), Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), AFM Supplement (AFMS), or Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Flight Standardization Board (FSB) Report. In certain cases involving special areas of operation, such as AMU, PBN airspace, RVSM, and NAT/MNPS, the airworthiness approval must reflect that these special requirements are also met.
2) The eligible aircraft must have equipment where the aircraft documentation explicitly states that the installation has received airworthiness approval for the type of operations contemplated.
B. Conventional Navigation Equipment. In the case of conventional navigation using equipment, such as VOR, VOR/DME, NDB, a statement in the AFM or STC that the navigation system and/or equipment is approved for instrument flight rules (IFR) flight is sufficient. For navigation with other types of RNAV equipment, the equipment must be certified for IFR operations and installed and maintained in accordance with the GACA approved documentation appropriate for that specific RNAV equipment.
C. Area Navigation (RNAV). RNAV provides enhanced navigational capability. RNAV equipment can automatically compute the aircraft position, actual track, and ground speed and then provide meaningful information relative to a route of flight selected by the pilot. Typical equipment will provide the distance, time, bearing, and crosstrack error relative to the selected “TO” or “active” waypoint and the selected route. Several RNAV systems with different navigational performance characteristics are capable of providing area navigational functions. Present day RNAV equipment is considered to be equipment that operates by automatically determining aircraft position from one or a combination of the following sensors with the means to establish and follow a desired path:
1) VOR/DME.
2) DME/DME.
3) INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS).
4) GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS).
a) GNSS systems must be approved in accordance with:
• FAA AC 20-138 (as amended), Airworthiness Approval of Global Positioning System (GPS) (GNSS) Navigation Equipment for Use as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation System.
• FAA AC 90-94 (as amended), Guidelines for Using GPS (GNSS) Equipment for IFR En route and
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Terminal Operations and for Non-precision Instrument Approaches in the U.S. National Airspace System, found at web site:
- Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-129, Airborne Supplemental Navigation Equipment Using the Global Positioning System (GPS) (GNSS)
- TSO C-145, Airborne Navigation Sensors Using the Global Positioning System (GPS) (GNSS) Augmented by the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
- TSO C-146, Stand-Alone Airborne Navigation Equipment Using the Global Positioning System (GPS) (GNSS) Augmented by the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and other installation criteria
5) Modern multi-sensor systems (such as IRS/flight management system (FMS)) can integrate one or more of the above sensors to provide a more accurate and reliable navigational system. See FAA AC 20-130, (as amended) and FAA AC 25-15 (as amended), Approval of Flight Management Systems in Transport Category Airplanes).
6) RNAV systems must include a statement that the system meets the reliability and performance criteria, that the system is approved for instrument flight rules (IFR) flight, and if required, is approved for specific navigation specifications in accordance with the ICAO Doc. 9613 (as amended) and all applicable FAA Advisory Circulars that are incorporated by reference in ICAO Doc. 9613.
5.1.2.11. TRAINING PROGRAMS AND MANUALS. Other important areas that must be considered are approved/ accept
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